It is used, of course, to refer to future events but it has a special usage.
e.g.: “so gamissati nāma.”
When “nāma” is used in combination with a Future Tense verb, it can have two
meanings:
Vimhaya = surprise, wonder, astonishment
Garaha = disapproval, reproach, blame
In the sentence, “gamissati” is used in the sense of the Past to denote “surprise for his going” and translated as “O! he has gone”. It implies that his act of going was a cause of surprise.
Pañha 狭义指“问题、疑问”this term literally means “a question, a problem”
但在这里它的意思是“怀疑或拿不准一件事情的行为或状态的特定过程。” but in this context, its sense is defined as “doubt or uncertainty in a particular course of action or state of events”.
例句E.g.
我得学点儿法语或英语。 I may learn French or English.
Patthanā = 该术语是“对愿望、期望、渴望的一种表达”。 this term means “an expression of a wish, a desire, longing”.
例句E.g.
愿他安全抵达 May he arrive there safely!
Vidhi = 根据上下文，它的意思可以是请求、命令、劝告或允许其中之一。 Depending on the context, this term means a request, a command, an advice or giving permission.
例句E.g. so gacchatu
请求：请让他走吧。 Request: Please let him go.
命令：他必须走。 Command: He must go.
建议：他应该走。 Advice: He should go, or he ought to go.
许可：他可以走了/允许他离开。 Permission: He may go, or he is permitted to go.
>sadda pan goun
主格关系有财释(pathama-bahubbihi, Relative in the Nominative Case)
例如:
chinnahattho puriso= hand-cut man [手被砍断的人, a man whose hands have been cut off.在此, chinnahattho为有财释,修饰名词puriso。]
lohitamakkhitaṃ mukhaṃ=lohitena makkhitaṃ mukhaṃ (涂抹着血的嘴巴the mouth be smeared with blood.) lohitamakkhitaṃ 是有财释。[Lohita, 【n.】 血。 Makkheti (makkh + e),涂抹, makkhita【PPP】];
susajjitaṃ puraṃ (一座装饰得很好的城市, a well - decorated city; Sajjita, sajjeti 的【PPP】。Sajjeti (saj + e) 庄严，装饰。) ; susajjitaṃ是有财释。
对格关系有财释(dutiya-bahubbihi, Relative in the Accusative Case); 也就是說, 付予它所限定或形容的字,文法上对格意义关系。
例:
āgatasamano saṅghārāmo =imaṃ saṅgharāmaṃ samaṇo āgato ॥ (沙门來到的僧伽园。this monastery the priest came to.) agatasamano 是有财释。Arama【 m. 】公园、寺院。
ārūḷhanaro rukkho=so naro imaṃ rukkhaṃ
( m. /acc/sg) arūḷho (被男子所攀登的树。the tree into which the man climbed.) ārūḷhanaro 是有财 释。(aruhati= a + ruh + a 爬上,攀登; Arulha【PPP】)
具格关系有财释(tatiya-bahubbihi, Relative in the Instrumentive Case); 有财释 复合词付予它所限定、定义或形容的字,文法上具格意义的关系。
例:
jitindriyo samaṇo=yena jitāni indriyāni so samaṇo ॥ (六根被沙门降伏。The samana by whom the senses have been conquered.) jitindriyo是有财释。
vijitamāro bhagavā=so bhagavā yena māro vijito ॥ 死魔被世尊征服 (The Blessed One by whom Mara was vanquished.) vijitamāro是有财释。
为格关系有财释(catutthi bahubbihi, Relative in the Dative Case) 有财释复合词 付予它所定义或形容的字,文法上为格意义的关系。
例:
dinnasuṅko puriso=yassa suṅko dinno so[付其税金的男子,he to whom tax is given.] dinnasuṅko 是有财释。 suṅka【m.n.】税金;
upanītabhojano samaṇo=so samaṇo yassa bhojanaṃ upanitaṃ,[食物给与沙门。 the priest to whom food is given.] upanītabhojano 是有财释。
从格关系有财释(pabcami-bahubbihi, Relative in the Ablative case) :有财释复合 词付予它所定义或形容的字,文法上从格意义的关系。
例:
niggatajano gāmo =asmā gāmasmā janā niggatā (从该村庄人们结群已離去。that village from which the people have departed) 意指:废弃村庄。niggatajano是有财释。
apagatakāḷakaṃ vatthaṃ=idaṃ vatthaṃ yasmā kāḷakā apagatā (由此布哪个黑色的点已離,即一块没有黑色的污点的布。a cloth free from black spots. Apagacchati (apa + gam + a)避开, 移掉。Kalaka【adj.】黑色。【 n. 】黑点，污点。Apagata 【PPP】)。Vattha【 n. 】布料，衣服。) apagatakāḷakaṃ是有财释。
属格关系有财释(chatthi-bahubbihi, Relative in the Genitive Case): 有财释复合 词付予它所定义或形容的字,文法上属格意义的关系。
例:
chinnahattho puriso =so puriso yassa hattho chinno (手被断的男子, the man whose hands are cut off.) chinnahattho 是有财释。
visuddhasīlo jano=so jano yassa sīlaj visuddhaṃ (戒行清净的男子,that person whose conduct is pure, a moral person.) visuddhasīlo 是有财释。
处格关系有财释(sattama-bahubbihi, Relative in the Locative Case) : 有财释复 合词付予它所定义或形容的字,文法上处格意义的关系。
例:
sampannasasso janapado =yasmiṃ janapade sassāni sampannāni: (农产丰富的地区, A district in which the crops are abundant, a fertile district. ) sampannasasso 是有财释。
bahujano gāmo=yasmiṃ gāme babū janāhonti: (很多人聚集的村庄, a village in which are many persons, a populous village.) bahujano 是有财释。
(e) 被有财释复合词所限定、形容的名词经常已经被理解、被复合词所示意,不需 多作表达了。
例:
dinnasuṅko (4) (收税的人, 税官 who receives taxes, a tax collector不需
后面名词 puriso 人);
jitindriyo (3) (降伏根门的人, he who has subdued his senses. 不需 后面名词 samano沙门);
lohitamakkhito (1) (涂抹着血, besmeared with blood;不需后面名 词 Mukha 嘴 );
sattahaparinibbuto [已死七天, dead since a week.; Sattaha【n.】七天;parinibbuta 【PPP】已死: parinibbati= pari + ni + va + a]
somanasso (直译: 他喜樂生起, he to whom joy has arisen);
chinnahattho (6) (手被砍断的人, he whose hands have been cut off.);
māsajāto (一个 月大, a month old; 直译: he who is born since one month);
vijitamāro (3) (征服死魔指世尊, he who has conquered Mara, the Buddha.);
本品是讲解句子中词语与词语的关系。 The function of this topic is to define the word-to-word relations in a sentence.
词语之间的关系是单向的。 Relations between words are mono-directional.
比如，如果词语A与词语B有关联，B本身必须与另外的词语C关联，而不是回过头来与词语A有关联。 For instance, if the word A is related to B, B itself must be connected to another word C, not back to A.
通常来说，主要动词是一个句子中的根本。其他词语可能与该动词发生关联，而不是反过来。 Generally speaking, the main verb is the keystone of a sentence.
Other words may be related to it, but not vice-versa.
如果两个或者更多的名词表示相同的内容，它们必须是同样的格，但是有时在性与数上可能会不同。 If two or more nouns have identical contents, they must be of the same case but may sometimes differ in gender and number.
另外，两个或更多的名词表示不同的内容，则它们可能有相同的格、性与数。 On the other hand, two or more nouns of different contents may have the same case, gender and number.
一些不变词比如ca, tathā, yathā等等，和其他词语没有关联。 Some indeclinables such as ca, tathā, yathā, etc. are not related to other words.
主语与宾语的主动被动 Activity/Inactivity of subjects and objects
当说主语或宾语主动时； When a subject or object is said to be active;
它必须是主格，如果它关联于一个主要动词，且 it must be in nominative case if related to a main verb and
它相应的动词必须与它一致： its corresponding verb must agree with it,
(a) 在人称与数上与曲折了的动词一致，或者 in person and number if the verb is a conjugated form or,
(b) 如果动词是现在、过去或者未来分词，那么在性、格与数上要一致。 in gender, case and number if the verb is a present, past or future participle.
当说主语或宾语被动时； When a subject or object is said to be inactive;
它相应的动词不必与之保持一致，且 its corresponding verb need not have any agreement with it and,
一个被动主语可能是工具格或者属格 an inactive subject may be in instrumental or genitive case 而一个被动宾语必须是宾格。 while an inactive object must be in accusative case.
注Note:
In the following sections, all sample Pali sentences are given with English translations.
In the English equivalents, words given in brackets are those that are necessary for English syntax yet have no representation in the Pali version.
英文来源：
——Compiled and commented by Ven.Paṇḍita Pariyatti Faculty ITBMU.
——Revised edition at PA-AUK Tawya, Mawlamyine.
The nouns in this case are used to address people or things in fancy. They are considered to be outside the scope of the sentence syntax and, accordingly, bear no relation to other words.
This relation is used to denote the associative or dissociative aspects of sense, that is, the notions of " with / together" and " without/ not having with". It may further be classified into two sub-relations.
Here the indeclinables denoting" with"(e.g saha, saddhiṃ) or those denoting "without" (e.g. aññatra, vinā) are explicitly used.
Puttena saha gacchati
goes with the son.
flowchart LR
A("puttena [with] son m. sg. inst.")
B("saha together conj.")
A--"SOE"-->B
Puttena vinā gacchati
goes without the son.
flowchart LR
A("puttena son m. sg. inst.")
B("vinā without conj.")
A--"SOE"-->B
In the example above, the sense of saha meaning "together" is only implied, not directly expressed. This relation cannot be used for the sense "without".
名词表示事物或人物从一个真实或虚拟的地方发生、分离，用离格（从格）表示，与表示来的、分离的方向的动词相关联。
Here the nouns expressing things or persons from which a sort of real or imaginary separation takes place are put in ablative case and related to a verb (word) which expresses or indicates the act of separation.
E.g.
purisā gāmā apenti
>（那些）男人从村庄走开。
> (The) men go (away) from (the) village.
当两件事物或两个人物有属性上的不同时，名词用于表示在质量程度上要差些的事物，与其他名词关联，重新表示它自己的属性。
When two things or persons have an attributive difference, the noun expressing the entity of a lesser degree of quality is related to the ther representing the attribute itself.
例如：E.g,
so asmāhi pāpiyataro
>他比我们更差。
> He (is) worse than us.
Here a noun expressing a point in space or time is related to a verb, which denotes the action that takes place there or then. Sometimes, it is related to an entity situated there or then.
gaṅgāyaṃ nhāyati
沐浴在恒河（河）中。
bathes in the Ganges (river).
flowchart LR
A("gaṅgāyaṃ [在]恒河 阴·单·处")
B("nhāyati [其]沐浴 动|三·单·现")
A--"LOV 容器-动词"-->B
rattiyaṃ sayati
在晚上睡觉。
sleeps at night.
flowchart LR
A("rattiyaṃ [在]晚上 阴·单·处")
B("sayati [其]睡 动|三·单·现")
A--"LOV 容器-动词"-->B
Causative verbs are viewed as compound verbs, i.e., they are seen as
combinations of the actions represented by roots and those by the causal
suffixes (the whole verbs). Accordingly, components of a causative verb have
different sets of subjects and objects.
It should be noted here that the Causal Object and the Radial Subject are represented by the same word. Causative verbs can also be classified in three
voices---Active, passive and Absolute.
Causative verbs are viewed as compound verbs,
i.e., they are seen as combinations of the actions represented by roots and those by the causal suffixes (the whole verbs).
It should be noted here that the Causal Object and the Radial Subject are represented by the same word.
Causative verbs can also be classified in three voices——Active, passive and Absolute.
这里应该注意的是，使役宾语和发动主语由同一个词表示。
使役动词也可以分为三种语态——主动，被动和绝对。
Here the causal subject is put in nominative case, the causal object
(Radial subject) in Accusative or Instrumental and the Radial Object in
Accusative.
在这里，使令主语被用主格，使令宾语（根本主语）用宾格或工具格及根本宾语用宾格。
puriso dārakaṃ / dārakena gāmaṃ gamayati = (The) man makes (the) child go to (the) village.
Here the causal subject is in Instrumental case, causal object (Radial
subject) in Instrumental or Accusative case and Radial object in Accusative
case.
这里的使令主语用工具格，使令宾语（根本主语）用工具格或宾格及根本宾语用宾格。
例句：purisena dārakaṃ / dārakena gāmaṃ gamāpīyati
(the) child is caused by (the) man to go (to) the village
Here a noun in adjectival use is related to a noun it modifies. The
adjective must follow the case of the substantive but may differ in gender and
number.
在这里，形容词用法中的名词与它修饰的名词有关。形容词必须遵循实质的情况，但在性和数上可能有所不同。
mahatā purisena =...with (a/ the) great man
mahatā purisena =...与（一位/该位）伟人
mahatā --> purisena (IAD)
nandā nāma saro = (the) lake Nandā by name---
nandā nāma saro = 名为Nandā的（那个）湖---
nandā --> saro (IAD)
vīsati purisā = twenty men---
vīsati purisā = 二十个男人---
vīsati --> purisā (IAD)
Note: mark the difference of gender in the second example and that of both
gender and number in the last.
Infinitives are considered as indeclinable verbal derivatives of Absolute
voice. They are related to the verb they qualify in Purposive Relation (PUR) and
generally have the same subject as the verb they qualify.
However, they may serve as Active subjects or objects of the verbs
qualified by them when these verbs have no separate Active subject or object.
When used in this way, infinitives are viewed as third person nouns in nomi-
native case and singular number, and the main verb must agree with it.
They are also indeclinable verbal derivatives of Absolute voice.
They can have two senses; (a) real or figurative priority in time (b) causality.
When used in the first sense, they have the same subject as the verbs qualified by them and are related to them in Adverbial Relation (ADV).
However, when the second sense is to be understood, they have subjects different from those of the verbs they qualify and related to them in causality Relation (CAU).
He, having been a novice, stays.
[= He stays as a novice (adverbially) OR He becomes a novice and stays
(change of state) OR He stays after becoming a novice (both)]
In the sentence above, puriso is the primary inactive subject and
sāmanero the secondary inactive subject of hutvā. Puriso is in
nominative case, singular number only because it is the active subject
of the main verb vasati; sāmanero follows puriso in case, gender and
number because they are identical in content. As regards hutvā, they are
only inactive subjects.
= Food is eaten by him, having been a novice [ = Food is eaten by him as
a novice (adverbially) OR Food is eaten by him becoming a novice (change
of state) OR Food is eaten by him after becoming a novice (both)]
flowchart LR
A("purisena")
B("bhuñjīyate")
C("hutvā")
D("sāmanerena")
E("bhattaṃ")
A--"ISV"--> B
A--"DSO-P"-->C
D--"DSO-S"-->C
E--"AOV"-->B
Here also, purisena is the primary inactive subject and sāmanerena, the secondary inactive subject of hutvā.
Purisena is in instrumental case because it is the inactive subject of the main verb bhuñjīyate;
sāmanerena follows purisena in case, gender and number because they are identical in content. As regards hutvā, they are only inactive subjects.
Here sāmanero, the secondary inactive subject, is in nominative case but the relations and the translation is the same as above. Such usage is
only occasional in Pali literature.
E.g. Purisena dattena nāma (hutvā) rājā hatā. = The king was killed by the man, having been datta by name. [= The king was killed by the man with the
name datta]
They are used to define, qualify, or to limit the scope of the main clause,
i.e., the one involving the main verb. They can be viewed as having three types,
namely, (a) Relative Clause (b) Absolute Clause and (c) Absolute voice Clause.
引导从句的分词可以是过去分词、现在分词或未来被动分词。
The participle governing the clause is a past or present or future participle.
在绝对语态中，属格或处格，中性和单数。它以限定关系(DEF)与主要动词相关联。
It is in Absolute Voice, Genitive or Locative case, Neutral gender and Singular number. It is related to the main verb in Definitive Relation (DEF).
分词的被动主语或宾语，可能或不可能与主句中的有些词有关系。
The Inactive subject or Inactive object of the participle may or may not be related to some word in the main clause.
例句：Purisena bhojanaṃ bhutte dārako marati
（当……的时候/作为/当） （那个）人在吃食物时，孩子死了。
(While/ As / When) food is (being) eaten by (the) man, (the) child dies.
必须有一个分词（过去，现在或未来），或一个普通名词，引导从句。
There must be a participle (past, present or future), OR an ordinary noun, governing the clause.
它必须是属格或处格，并以限定关系的形式与主要动词相关联。
It must be in genitive or locative case and must be related to the main verb in Definitive Relation (DEF).
如果它是一个分词If it is a participle——
它必须是主动或被动语态，并且必须与主动主语或主动宾语的性和数一致。
It must be in Active or Passive voice and must follow the gender and number of its Active subject or Active object.
其主动主语或主动宾语必须与它的格一致，并且不得与主句中的任何单词 有任何关系。
Its Active subject or Active object must follow its case and must NOT have any relation to any word in the main clause.
或者，如果它是一个普通名词 OR if it is an ordinary noun——
它必须有一个补语---另一个同样格的名词，并且可能是相同的性与数---以主表关系与之关联。
It must have a complement --- another noun of the same case, and probably the same gender and number --- related to it in Nominal Identity (Ordinary / Denominative) relation.
其补语不得与主句中的任何单词有任何关系。
Its complement must NOT have any relation to any word in the main clause.
当分词或名词以属格的形式引导从句时，关系从句分词可能具有暗示的相同的意思。
When the participle, or the noun, governing the clause is in genitive case, it may have the same implied sense as the Relative clause participle.
该从句必须有一个现在分词来引导。
There must be a present participle governing the clause.
它必须是主动或被动语态，且必须在格、性、数上与它的主动主语或主动宾语一致。
It must be in Active or Passive voice and follow the case, gender and number of its Active subject or object.
主动主语或宾语的格位取决于它与主句中某些词的关系。
The case of the Active subject or object depends on its relation to some word in the main clause.
每个关系从句可以有两种不同的解读，相应地，引导该从句的分词同样可以有两种不同的关系。
Every Relative Clause can have two different interpretations and,
accordingly, the participle governing it can have two different relations.
这两种解释及关系分别是They are as follows——
a.它以限定关系(DEF)与主要动词相关联
It is related to the main verb in Definitive Relation (DEF)1,OR,
b.它以同一形容词关系 (IAD)中与其主动主语或宾语相关。
It is related to its Active subject or object in Identical Adjective Relation (IAD).
如果该分词是在属格中，它有时暗示主句所表示的动作是由限定关系从句执行的，不管它的情况如何。
If the participle is in Genitive case, it is sometimes implied that the action expressed by the main verb is carried out in spite of the situation expressed by the Defining Relative Clause.
purisassa passantassa dhanaṃ corā haranti
（即使/即使作为）该男人看到（正在看），小偷们携带（他的）财产（离开）。
(Even while / Even as) the man sees (is looking on), thieves carried (his) property (away).
名词当成形容词来用，与被它所修饰的名词相关联。大多数情况下，修饰词与被修饰词的性、数、格完全一致，但个别情况下，存在性与数的不同。
Here a noun in adjectival use is related to a noun it modifies.
The adjective must follow the case of the substantive but may differ in gender and number.
例句：mahatā purisena
被一个伟人
...with (a/ the) great man
flowchart LR
A("mahatā 大 三性|阳·单·具")
B("purisena 男人 名|阳·单·具")
A--"IAD 同格位修饰-被修饰"-->B
例句：nandā nāma saro
名为“nandā”的湖
(the) lake Nandā by name
flowchart LR
A("nandā 喜庆 名|阴·单·主")
B("saro 湖 名|中·单·主")
A--"IAD 同格位修饰-被修饰"-->B
例句：vīsati purisā
二十位男人
twenty men
flowchart LR
A("vīsati 二十 数词干")
B("purisā 男人[们] 名|阳·复·主")
A--"IAD 同格位修饰-被修饰"-->B
引号作用：对于一个词语或者多个词语，
口头说的或者心里想的（内容）被引用。
辨认的标识是放在句末的不变词iti。
A quotation can be defined as the citation of a word or words, spoken or thought of.
It can be recognized by the indeclinable iti, which is added to the end of it.
把整个引文看作是一个名词，并以引语关系与iti关联起来。
而iti本身则以引号关系与相应的动词相关联。
引语本身可译或不译出来。
The whole set of quoted words is viewed as a single noun and related to "iti" in Quoted Speech Relation (QUS) and "iti" itself related to a corresponding verb in Quotation Marker relation (QUM).
The quoted speech itself may be translated or not.
例句：puriso gacchati iti so vadati / cinteti.
他在说/想 “puriso gacchati”。
He says / thinks as, "puriso gacchati" (untranslated)
他在说/想：“（那个）人走了。”
He says / thinks as, "He goes" (translated).
flowchart LR
A("puriso")
B("gacchati")
C("iti")
D("vadati/cinteti")
subgraph iti
A--"ASV"-->B
direction LR
end
iti--"QUS"-->C
C--"QUM"-->D
例句：so datto iti ñāyate
他以Datta（之名）被人所知。
He is known as Datta.
flowchart LR
A("so")
B("datto")
C("iti")
D("ñāyate")
A--AOV-->D
B--"QUS"-->C
C--"QUM"-->D
可把引文与iti当作一个粘音词。这个整体是一个无词尾变化的名词。
其格位可以模拟7个格中的任何一个（呼格除外），而且根据上下文中可以推知它是引文。
The set of quoted words may be viewed as a single noun stem which is combined with iti to form a compound.
The result is an indeclinable noun.
Its case may be one of the seven cases (the Vocative is excluded) and should be inferred from the context.
例句：puriso gacchati iti so vadati / cinteti.
He says (the words) / thinks of (the words), "puriso gacchati".
He says (the words) / thinks of (the words), "He goes".
flowchart LR
A("“Puriso gacchati”iti")
B("vadati / cinteti")
A--"IOV"-->B
例句：so "datto" iti ñāyate.
= 他（的名字）叫“datta”而为人所知。
He, who is (named) Datta, is known.
flowchart LR
A("so")
B("ñāyate")
C("“datto”iti")
A--"AOV"-->B
C--"IAD"-->A
B. Sometimes, the initial part only, one word or more, of the whole speech is quoted.
In this case, the quoted portion cannot be translated.
Ex. "Puriso maggaṃ gacchati" may be quoted as "puriso iti".
Then it can be translated only as "puriso, etc." or "the words 'puriso, etc'."
When items belonging to a class are enumerated, each noun denoting an item is related to "iti" in enumerative relation (ENU).
And "iti" itself is related, in enumeration marker Relation (ENM), to the numeral that qualify the noun denoting the class.
例句：Buddhassa, Dhammassa, Sanghassa ca iti tiṇṇaṃ rattanānaṃ ahaṃ namāmi.
我皈依三宝，即佛、法与僧。
I pay homage to Three Gems, that is / namely, Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
The nouns denoting enumerated items generally carry the case of the numeral qualifying the class.
But they sometimes carry the Nominative case.
Sometimes, iti is not expressed but to be known by implication.
例句：Buddhassa, Dhammassa, Sanghassa ca tiṇṇaṃ rattanānaṃ ahaṃ namāmi.
I pay homage to Three Gems, (that is / namely) Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
A quotation can be defined as the citation of a word or words, spoken or thought of.
它可以通过加在句子的末尾的不变词iti来识别。
It can be recognized by the indeclinable iti added to its end.
它可以通过两种方式来处理
It can be dealt in two ways.
把被引用全部单词视为一个名词与“iti”相关联，其关系为被引用-引号（nidassetabba - nidassana，引号内-引号）关系，
“iti”本身与相应的动词相关联，其关系为引号-（nidassana - nidassanavant，引号-引号外）中的相应动词相关。
The whole set of quoted words is viewed as a single noun and related to “iti” in Quoted Speech Relation(QUS) and “iti” itself related to a corresponding verb in Quotation Marker relation (QUM).
引文本身可翻可不翻。
The quoted speech itself may be translated or not.
Ex. puriso gacchati iti so vadati / cinteti.
flowchart LR
subgraph iti
direction LR
A("Puriso 单·主 男人 ")
B("gacchati 动·第三·单·现 前往")
A--"ASV"-->B
end
C("iti 引号 不变·副")
D("vadati/cinteti [其]说/想 动·第三·单·现")
iti--"QUS"-->C
C--"QUM"-->D
The set of quoted words, viewed as a single noun, is combined with iti to form a compound.
一组被引用的单词，被视为单个名词，与iti组合形成复合词。
The result is an indeclinable noun. Its case may be one of the seven cases (the Vocative is excluded) and should be inferred from the context.
结果是一个不变名词。其情况可能是七种情况之一（不包括呼格），应从上下文中推断。
Ex. puriso gacchati iti so vadati / cinteti.
flowchart LR
subgraph "引号内"
direction LR
A("Puriso 单·主 男人 ")
B("gacchati 动·第三·单·现 前往")
A--"ASV"-->B
end
引号内--QUS-->C("iti 不变·副 引号")--IOV-->D("vadati/cinteti 动·第三·单·现 说")
He says (the words) / thinks of (the words), “puriso gacchati”, or, “He goes”.
他说（这些话）/想（这些话），“puriso gacchati”，或者"他走了"。
Ex. so “datto” iti ñāyate
Sometimes, the initial part only, one word or more, of the whole speech is quoted.
In this case, the quoted portion cannot be translated.
For example, “Puriso maggam gacchati” may be quoted as “puriso iti”.
Then it can be translated only as, “as ‘puriso’ etc.” or “the words ‘puriso’ etc.”
Note: the main clause outside the scope of a quoted speech can be translated separately.
Then an inserted question must follow it, after which the quoted part is given.
This is called the Excluded Quotation method of translation (ākārabahikaraṇa).
= He says. [How does he say? He says] as, “puriso gacchati” (or) “He goes”.
=他说。[他说什么？他说]"puriso gacchati"（或）"他走了"。
= He says. [What does he say? He says the words] “puriso gacchati” (or) “He goes”.
In contrast, the style without an inserted question (i.e. as in the examples above
except the last) is called the Incorporated Quotation method (ākāra-antokaraṇa).
These two types can further be divided into two sub-types each, depending on whether the quoted part is translated or not.
If it remains in Pali, this may be termed the Formally Excluded Quotation (saddato ākārabahikaraṇa) method or Formally Incorporated Quotation (saddato ākāra-antokaraṇa) method.
If it is translated, this is called the Essentially Excluded Quotation (atthato
ākārabahikaraṇa) method or Essentially Incorporated Quotation (atthato ākāra-antokaraṇa) method.
The monk goes in the sky as people (go) on the ground.
The monk goes in the sky. (Like whom?) Just as people (go) on the ground.
Two parts of a comparison sentence can be divided in the translation by an inserted question.
It is called Excluded Comparison method.
在翻译时可以通过引入一个问题来将比喻句拆分成两个部分。
这称为拆分比喻译法。
(When no question is inserted, it is called Incorporated Comparison method)
（如果不引入问题，则称为合并比喻译法）
The phrase yathā … tathā can be used to form a comparison sentence.
Trs. Just as people go on the ground, so also the monk goes in the sky.
Note: when yathā … tathā is used not to denote a comparison, the verb which tathā (meaning “in that way”) modifies must be changed into a participle and related in DEF relation to the verb of the yathā (meaning “in which way”) sentence.
The word yathā must be related to that participle in Adverbial relation.
It is the method in which a foregoing sentence is translated first; the following
one is dealt with later and returning to the first one again. Its purpose is to clarify the
logical structure of given context.
a. 结果 - 原因 Unit of Effect followed by Unit of Cause
b. 结论 - 前提 Unit of Conclusion followed by Unit of Premise
c. 待定 - 确定 Unit of Doubtful Content followed by Unit of Confirming Content
d. 特指 - 不定指 Unit of Definite Content followed by Unit of Indefinite Content
e. 本体 - 喻体 Unit of Compared Object followed by Unit of Standard of Comparison
Of them, the interrelated translation of Unit of Doubtful Content / Unit of
Confirmation is the most difficult and the least helpful. Therefore it would be put aside
and others are to be imparted.
a. Interrelated Translation of Unit of Effect / Unit of Cause
a. 果分句/因分句的相互关联翻译
Ex. Dhumo girismim hoti. Tattha hi aggi atthi.
译译.（简单）山上有烟，因为那里有火。
Trs. (Simple) There is smoke on the mountain, because there is fire there .
(Interrelated) There is smoke on the mountain. (Why is there smoke on the mountain?) Since there is fire there, there is smoke on the mountain.
（相互关联）山上有烟。（为什么山上有烟？)由于那里有火，山上就有烟雾。
b. Interrelated Translation of Unit of Conclusion / Unit of Premise
b. 结论分句/前提分句的相互关联翻译
Ex. Aggi girismim hoti. Tattha hi dhumo atthi.
译.（简单）山上有火，因为那里有烟。
Trs. (simple) There is fire on the mountain, for there is smoke there.
(interrelated) There is fire on the mountain. (Why is it known that there is fire on the mountain?) Since there is smoke there, (it is known that) there is fire on the mountain.
（相互关联）山上有火。（为什么知道山上有火？）由于那里有烟雾，（众所周知）山上有火。
c. Interrelated Translation of Unit of Definite Content / Unit of Indefinite Content
c. 特指 - 不定指的相互关联翻译
Ex. So papo hoti. Yo akusalam karoti
Trs. (simple) The one who performs demerit, he is the evil one.
译. （简单）凡做不善者，其乃恶人也。
(interrelated) He is the evil one. (Who is the evil one?) The one who performs
demerit, he is the evil one.
（相互关联） 他是邪恶的。 （谁是邪恶的？） 犯过失的人，他是邪恶的。
d. Interrelated Translation of Unit of Compared Object / Unit of Standard of Comparison
d. 比较喻体分句/比较本体分句的相互关联翻译
Ex. Samano akase gacchati nara viya bhumiyam.
Trs. (simple) The monk goes in the sky as people on the ground.
译.（简单）比库像地面上的人一样在天空中行走。
(interrelated) The monk goes in the sky. (As whom that goes where?) As people go on the ground, the monk goes in the sky.
（相互关联）比库在天空中走。 （像谁？去哪儿？)像人们在地上行走，比库在天空中行走。
Note: It is different from the Excluded Comparison method given before.
If a sentence is to be translated using Nominal Identity (Ordinary /
Denominative) relation, Double Active Subject (Ordinary / Denominative), Double
Active Object or Double Inactive Object relation, it can be divided into two separate
sentences.
In the first sentence, a relative pronoun would be combined with the first noun
(with the nominative case) in the Nominal Identity relation, and with Primary Subjects
or Objects in others. Hence, it is called an indefinite sentence. In the second one, a
Denominative pronoun would be brought together with the second noun (the
nominative case) in the Nominal Identity relation, and with Secondary Subjects or
Objects in others. Hence, it is called a definite sentence.
Ex. Tassa pita acariyo [His father (is / was) a teacher. pita --> acariyo (NIO)]
= Yo tassa pita, so acariyo [The one who (is / was) his father, he is / was a teacher]
*Samano Tisso nama [The monk (is / was) Tissa by name. Samano --> Tisso (NID)] = Yo samano, so Tisso nama. [ The one who (is / was) the monk, he is / was Tissa by name]
*Samano Tisso nama [那位比库（是/曾经是）叫Tissa。Samano --> Tisso （NID）] = Yo samano， so Tisso nama.[那位（是/曾经是）比库的人，他的名字是/是Tissa]
*Tassa pita acariyo hoti. [His father becomes a teacher. pita --> hoti (DASO-P)
acariyo --> hoti (DASO-S)]
= Yo tassa pita, so acariyo hoti [The one who is his father, he becomes a teacher]
*Samano Tisso nama ahosi [The monk was Tissa by name.
Samano --> ahosi (DASD-P) Tisso --> ahosi (DASD-S)]
acariyo --> hoti （DASO-S）] = Yo tassa pita， so acariyo hoti [他的父亲，成为了一名老师] *Samano Tisso nama ahosi [比库的名字是Tissa。 萨马诺 --> ahosi （DASD-P） Tisso --> ahosi （DASD-S）]
= Yo samano, so Tisso nama ahosi. [The one who was the monk, he was Tissa by
name]
= Yo samano, so Tisso nama ahosi. [那个和尚，他叫Tissa]
*Samanero bhikkhu kato [The novice is made a monk]
因果名词是在因果关系中与其他词相关的名词。
Causal nouns are those related to other words in causal relation.
他们通常是abstract derivatives或复合词具有最后一个成员bhava，
They are usually abstract derivatives or compounds having the last member bhava,
and they may have either instrumental or ablative cases. For each causal noun, there is always another noun,
expressed or implied, termed as a causal possessor and related to it in possessor relation.
It must be of the same content as the abstract derivative stem, or the compound member united with bhava, of the causal noun.
A causal possessor is generally the active subject / object of the sentence in
which its causal noun is mentioned. (When the double active subject / object relation is
used, the primary subject / object should be chosen as the causal possessor.) In such
cases, causal possessors are usually not expressed --- to be understood only from the
context.
However, there are cases where a causal possessor is different in content from the
active subject / object of a given sentence. In this case, it is normally expressed.
Sometimes, there is another noun, or pronoun, which is related not to the whole
causal noun, but only to its abstract derivative stem, or the first compound member. It
is also normally expressed and termed an independent possessor.
Ex. Puriso gamam (gamassa) coranam bhumitaya na gacchati = The man does not
go to the village on account of its (i.e. of the village) state of being the thieves’
ground.
例如 Puriso gamam （gamassa） coranam bhumitaya na gacchati = 这个人不去村子，因为它（即村子）是盗贼的地盘。
In the example above, the implied gamassa is the causal possessor while
coranam, which is related to the abstract derivative stem bhumi, is the independent
possessor.
Sometimes, a causal noun is neither an abstract derivative nor a compound with
bhava. In this case, it is treated as if it were either, i.e. an abstract derivative, or, for that
matter, a compound with bhava; its causal possessor and its sense also are defined
accordingly. Such a causal noun is called an essentially abstractive (bhavappadhana)
noun or an elided-abstractive (bhavalopa) noun.
Ex. Puriso bhumiyam (purisassa) sayanato dukkham papunati = the man reaches
(i.e. gets) suffering on account of (the man’s, i.e. his) state of the one who sleeps
on the ground.
In the example above, the causal noun sayanato is equivalent to the compound sayanabhàvato, of which the initial part sayana is taken to be of subjective suffixal
case since its content is the same as that of purisa.
In comment units, certain words belonging to the commented units are sometimes
transformed into causal nouns. Then it is expected to recognize their causal possessors
even though not expressed. There are some tips for this.
a. When a past participle used as an active / passive verb is converted into a causal noun, its active subject or object respectively becomes the causal possessor.
a. 当用作主动/被动动词的过去分词转换为因果名词时，其主动主语或宾语分别成为causal possessor。
Ex. *Puriso gamam gato = The man goes to the village.
Purisassa gatatta ... = Because of the man’s state of being the one who goes ...
*Purisena kammam katam = The work is done by the man.
例如. *Puriso gamam gato = 那个男人去村子。
Purisassa gatatta ... = 因为去的那个人是那个男人的状态......
*Purisena kammam katam = 那份工作是由那男人完成。
Kammassa katatta ... = Because of the work’s state of being the one which is done ...
Kammassa katatta ... = 因为那个被完成的是那份工作的状态......
b. When the first word of the nominal identity relation, or the primary
subject of the double active subject relation, becomes a causal noun, its causal
possessor would be its inserted synonym whereas, if the second one or the secondary
subject is transformed, the first one or the primary subject respectively would come to
possess it.
b. 当第一个单词的nominal identity关系，或double active subject关系的primary主语成为因果名词时，其causal possessor将是inserted同义词，而如果第二个或次要主语被转换，第一个或主要主语将分别被possess。
Ex. Bhupala tissadattaiccadayo (honti) nama = the Land Protectors are named Tissa, Datta,etc.
Rajanam Bhupalataya ... = because of the kings’ state of being the Land Protectors..
例如 Bhupala tissadattaiccadayo （honti） nama = 土地保护者被命名为 Tissa， Datta，等等。
Rajanam Bhupalataya ... = 因为国王的存在状态是土地保护者。
Bhupalanam tissadattaiccadibhavato ... = because of the Land Protectors’ state of being named Tissa, Datta,etc...
c. When an identical adjective becomes a causal noun, the noun modified by it is the causal possessor, whereas, when the qualified part itself is changed into a
causal form, its inserted synonym comes to possess it.
c. 当一个identical形容词变成一个因果名词时，由它修饰的名词是causal possessor，而当限定部分本身被改变为一个因果形式，其inserted同义词来possess。
Ex. Mahanto buddho ... = the great Buddha
buddhassa mahantatta ... = on account of the Buddha’s greatness ...
例如，Mahanto buddho ... = 伟大的佛陀
佛陀玛汉塔塔... = 由于佛陀的伟大 ...
bhagavato buddhataya ... = on account of the Glorious one’s buddhahood ...
(with dassetuṃ) :- (the Lord Buddha), showed the Merit thus and, said (the words), “katame dhammā akusalā” to show the Demerit (with the words, “katame dhamma akusala”).
flowchart LR
subgraph 引号内
direction LR
A("katame")
B("dhammā")
C("akusalā")
A---B---C
end
E("āha")
F("iti")
引号内--"QUS"-->F
F--"QUM "-->E
Trs. (with dassento):- (the Lord Buddha), who showed the Merit and showed the
Demerit (with the words, “katame dhammā akusalā”), said (the words), “katame
dhamma akusala” / (or) said thus, “katame dhammā akusalā”.
flowchart LR
subgraph 引号内
direction LR
A("katame")
B("dhammā")
C("akusalā")
A---B---C
end
E("āha")
F("iti")
引号内--"QUS"-->F
F--"QUM "-->E
（其他关系可以从翻译中推断出来。） (Other relations can be inferred from the translation.)
When (the Lord Buddha), showed the Merit and showed the Demerit (with
the words, “katame dhammā akusalā”), (he) said (the words), “katame dhammā
akusalā” / (or) said thus, “katame dhammā akusalā”.
当短语 iti sambandho 在所给的文句中使用时，它可以有三组关系以及对应的翻译上的表达。
When the phrase iti sambandho is used in a given sentence, it can have three sets of relations, and three kinds of translations respectively.
flowchart LR
A("abhidhammatthasaṅgahaṃ bhasissaṃ")
B("sambandho")
C("iti")
D("kātabbo √kar+tabba")
subgraph 引号内
A--QUM-->C
end
C--QUS-->B
B--AOV-->D
D--ASV-->E("(hoti)")
译：应构成这样的关联，“（我）将阐述（的著作叫）abhidhammatthasaṅgahaṃ”。 Trs：The relation (ought to be made) / (is) thus, “ (I) will expound (the treatise called) abhidhammatthasaṅgahaṃ”.
无语尾变化的 upari、pari、upa 或 abhi ，当这些词的后面加上后缀 to 时，做 宾格 变化的单词与其构成主从关系。
When the suffix to is added to indeclinables upari, pari, upa, or abhi, another word in accusative case is related to it in possessor relation.
译：小部（Khuddakanikāya）是除了四部（nikāya）之外的佛陀的教導。 Trs. Khuddakanikāya is, indeed, four nikāyas not having been taken into account, the Buddha’s teaching other (than four nikāyas).
The indeclinables abbatra and vina are viewed as gerunds having the sense “having excepted, having excluded, not having included”.
Their inactive objects, that is, the objects excluded, can be in accusative, instrumental or ablative case.
When a semi-pronoun denoting a compass bearing, such as east, west, etc., is put
into instrumental case, another word in accusative case is related to it in detachment or
possessor relation.
Trs:- The Noble Truths are only four (in number). [If the sense (i.e. the concept) is taken (i.e. interpreted)] otherwise than this, the Buddha may not be
the Omniscient.
Note:- The inserted Indeclinable “ito” refers to the fact given by the sentence
preceding the one with itarathā / aññathā.
When a comment unit sentence ends with the phrase iti adhippāyo, the (inserted) word referring to the speaker or author in general, or the commented
unit ending with iti on occasion, is related to adhippāyo in POS relation.
当句子 comment unit 以短语 iti adhippāyo 结尾时，通常**（插入的）单词通常指代说话人或作者**，或 ** commented unit有时以iti结尾，与POS关系中的adhippāyo有关。
When more than one Identical Adjectives are used to modify a single noun, it is
sometimes possible to upgrade each preceding modifier to its abstract derivative form
in ablative case and to relate it, in causality relation, to the following one respectively.
a. 在某些上下文中，一个分词或名词与另一个词具有 DEF 关系的动词可以升级为在ablative情况下的abstract derivative形式，并在与因果关系中相同。
如果一个相对或绝对的从句是由分词/名词所引导的，则该分词的施动者/主语或受动者/宾语做属格变化，并且是衍生的causal possessor。
a. In some contexts, a participle, or a noun, which has a DEF relation to another
verb can be upgraded to its abstract derivative form in ablative case and related to the
same in causal relation. If the clause governed by the participle / noun is a relative or
absolute one, the active subject or active object of the participle comes to have the
genitive case and be the causal possessor of the derivative.
a. The indeclinable tattha, when used as the initial word of a sentence, usually
refers to a word or a set of words which is mentioned in the preceding sentences and the
part of which is related in the tattha sentence.
a. 当用作句子的首单词时，无语尾变化的tattha，通常指前面句子中提到的一个单词或一组单词，并且其中一部分与tattha句子有关。
--> āha (IOV) / (QUS + QUM)
Then tattha, the initial word in the following sentence, generally refers to that very phrase and is translated as, “In / among these words, ‘katame dhammā akusalā’ “.
Infinitives (such as those with the suffix tum) and compounds, of accusative
singular case, having the last member attha meaning, “reason, purpose, aim, intention”,
can have two relations, namely, Causal and Purposive ones.
Sometimes, the pronoun ayaṃ refers to a set of speech, which is already mentioned before, or, which is to be encountered later. In this case, it generally refers to the latter when it is followed by the indeclinable pana. On the contrary, when ayaṃ stands alone, it usually refers to the former.
When the indeclinable ci follows an Interrogative pronoun, the resultant phrase
means “a certain one, certain ones”. When the relative pronoun ya of the same case as
the interrogative one is added to the beginning of that phrase, it means “anyone, any
ones / anything, any things”.
当无语尾变化的 ci 跟在疑问代词之后，转变成了不定代词，是指"某个，某些"。当不定代词 前面加上 *关系代词 ya 时，其表达"任何人，任何一个/任何东西"。
Ex. koci, keci (Nom.) kañci, keci (Acc.), etc. [Mas.]
kiñci, kānici (Nom.), kiñci, kānici (Acc.), etc. [Neu]
kāci, kāci kāyoci (Nom.), kañci, kāci kāyoci, etc. [Fem.]
yokoci, yekeci (Nom.) yaṃkiñci, yekeci (Acc.), etc. [Mas.]
yaṃkiñci, yānikānici (Nom.), yaṃkiñci, yānikānici (Acc.), etc. [Neu]
yākāci, yākāci yāyokāyoci (Nom.), yaṃkañci, yākāci yāyokāyoci, etc. [Fem.]
In this phrase, eseva is a Sandhi combination, which can be analysed either as eso eva or eso iva. According to the first analysis, eseva nayo is an abbreviated form of “eso
eva nayo daṭṭhabbo = only this method (i.e. view) should be noted” and, in accordancewith the second, that of “eso (nayo) iva nayo daṭṭhabbo = a method (i.e. view) similar to
this one should be noted.”
Ettha siyā is an abbreviated form of the sentence, “Ettha ṭhatvā codakassa īdisī codanā siyā”. Hence, its translation is given as, “having stopped at this point, there may be such a criticism of the opponent”.
Ettha siya 是句子“Ettha thatva codakassa idisi codana siya”.的缩写形式。因此，它的翻译是，"可能会有那样的一对对手批评，在这一点上停下来"。
Kiñcettha is an abbreviated form of the sentence, “Ettha kiñci vattabbaṃ. Asamattā tava codanā. Avasittham tāva brūhi”. Hence, its translation is given as, “Here, something should be mentioned. Your argument is not finished. State the
remaining (part), indeed”.
The phrase nanu is a combination of the negative participle na and the question marker nu. By itself, nanu is usually a modifier of the main verb.
短语 nanu 是否定分词 na 和问号 nu 的组合。就其本身而言，nanu 通常是修饰主要動詞的。
Ex. Nanu samanero gamam gacchati?
译. 出家人不是去村子吗？
Trs. Doesn’t the novice go to the village?
Samanero gamam gacchati nanu?
译. 出家人去村子，不是吗？
Trs. The novice goes to the village, doesn’t he?
Samanero gamam na gacchati nu?
译. 出家人不去村子，是吗？
Trs. The novice does not go to the village, does he?
Samanero gamam gacchati nu? (without na)
译. 出家人会去村子吗？
Trs. Does the novice go to the village?
Samanero gamam na gacchati. (without nu)
译. 出家人不去村子。
Trs. The novice does not go to the village.
Sometimes, nanu is combined with the Indeclinable ca and placed at the beginning of a sentence. Then it initiates the launch of an argument and is usually
translated as “There may be an unfavourable remark here”.
有时，nanu 与无语尾变化的 ca 组合在一起，并放在句子的开头。然后它发起一个讨论，并且通常
翻译为"这里可能会有一场不愉快的谈论"。
In this phrase, taṃ is an indeclinable used as an demonstrative pronoun
and yathā is another used as an interrogative pronoun.
Both are viewed as having nominative cases.
This idiom is usually translated as, “What is this?” or “What are they?”
短语 yadidaṃ 被视为下列组合：
关系代词ya和指示代词ima，
两者任何性和数的主格。
The phrase yadidaṃ is viewed as equivalent to a combination of the relative and demonstrative pronouns ya and ima, which can be of nominative case, both number and any gender.
也就是说，这个固定搭配相当于下表中6种组合之一：
That is, this idiom corresponds to phrases
性
单数
复数
阳
yo ayaṃ
ye ime
中
yaṃ idaṃ
yāni imāni
阴
yā ayaṃ
yāyo imāyo
但ima的形式被认为没有特别的意义。
But the forms of ima are taken as carrying no particular sense.
例句：Bhikkhu āgacchati, yadidaṃ Tisso. 译：那个来的bhikkhu是Tissa。 Trs：The one who is Tissa, that monk comes.
Sometimes, vuccate is used to initiate a reply to an opponent. In this case, it is viewed as an abbreviated form of the sentence, “Ettha codakassa pariharo maya vuccate”. Hence its translation is given as, “Here, a reply to the opponent is conveyed by me”.
Dedicated to the Traditional Pali Scholarship of Myanmar
" We are standing now on heights which their struggles and their labours won for
us; if we seem to be above them, it is only because they have raised us on their
shoulders."
-Adapted from The Story of Philosophy (p-400) by Will Durant.
When a certain word or phrase is explained in commentaries or sub- commentaries, the original expression (called the commented unit) is placed in its explanatory sentence or paragraph (called the comment unit) therein. In Myanmar Pali tradition, interpretations of comment units have evolved into a system.
All interpretative techniques discovered in the course of time have been compiled, classified and analysed to result in a separate field of study that has come to be known as အာဘော်သံဝဏ္ဏနာ (Formal Interpretations).
They play a vital role in the study of commentaries and sub-commentaries.
1. --Posoti Puriso:- In this sentence, the commented unit poso is explained as having the sense, "man". It is termed as iti comment due to the use of the indeclinable iti.
2. --Poso Puriso:- Here the explanation is the same, but iti is not used; therefore, it is la-
belled non-iti comment.
The phrase abhidhamma --- sambandho implies that abhidhammattha- saṅgahaṃ is
the inactive object of the verb bhāsissaṃ.
Note: In the comment unit above, the word order of the commented unit is changed
to clarify the relation between abhidhammatthasaṅgahaṃ and bhāsissaṃ. Such a com-
ment serves to indicate the word-to-word relations, hence the term relational comment.
The phrase iti sambandho, having the sense "This is the relation", is typical of this
type but not an essential component --- whenever the word order of a commented unit is
changed to throw light on the relations within it, it can be termed a relational comment.1
1 It should be noted, however, that it is also possible to use relational comments for some indeclinables
having no relation to other words if such an explanation would serve to make the syntax clearer.
Another kind of approach can be used to classify comment units much more tho-
roughly, but the term indication will preferably be used to differentiate this method from
the previous one.
Here, the term "nominal" literally means "concerned with nouns", yet all nouns,
pronouns and numerals should be placed in its scope. On the other hand, the indications of
compounds (samāsa), Primary Derivatives (kita) and Secondary Derivatives (taddhita)
will be treated separately.
a. Nominal-Stem indication (nāmaliṅgapadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Assāti tassa..
The phrase "tassa" indicates that the stem of assa is ta (not ima)
b. Nominal-Stem Sense indication (nāmaliṅgatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Assāti dhammassa
The phrase "dhammassa" indicates that the stem ta or ima of assa has (i.e.
refers to) the sense "dhamma".
c. Nominal-Case indication (vibhattipadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
As shown in the topic of Conjugations, conjugated verbs are derived generally
from verbal stems and, occasionally, direct from roots. Consequently, a conjugated verb
may be a combination of a verbal stem, or a root, with a verbal ending. If a part or the
whole of a commented unit is a conjugated verb, its comment unit would be concerned
with its root (if it is formed by adding a verbal ending to a root), or its verbal stem (if
formed by adding a verbal ending to a verbal stem), the sense of either of them, the verbal
ending or its sense.
a. Root / Verbal-Stem indication (dhātupadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Vakkhatīti vacissati
The phrase "vacissati" indicates that the verb "vakkhati" is derived from the
root √ vac. (root indication)
Ex. Kāhissatīti karissati.
The phrase "karissati" indicates that the verbal stem "kāha" of the verb
"kāhissati" is an alternative form of the verbal stem "karo". (verbal-stem indication)
b. Root Sense / Verbal-Stem Sense indication (dhātvatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Vakkhatīti kathessati
The phrase "kathessati" indicates that the verb "vakkhati" has the sense "to
say, to speak, to tell". (root sense indication)1
Ex. Byākarosīti kathesi.
The phrase "kathesi" indicates that the verbal stem "byākaro" of the verb "byākarosi" has the sense "to say, to speak, to tell". (verbal-stem sense indication)
c. Verbal-Ending indication (dutiyavibhattipadasaṃvaṇṇanā)2
Ex. Bhāsissanti bhāsissāmi.
The phrase "bhāsissāmi" indicates that the verbal ending "ssaṃ" of the verb
"bhāsissaṃ" is a Future Attanopada 1st person ending (i.e. not an Unreal Conditional
one).
d. Verbal-Ending Sense indication (*dutiyavibhattyatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)*3
Ex. Sandhāvissanti saṃsariṃ.
The phrase "saṃsariṃ" indicates that the verbal ending "ssaṃ" of the verb
"Sandhāvissaṃ" has the sense of Past Tense.
1 Verbal-ending indication is also relevant here.
2 The term dutiya (meaning "second") is used to differentiate from nominal case-endings.
The term "primary derivative" includes in its scope Present, Past and Future Partici-
ples, Infinitives, Gerunds, and other noun stems that result when roots and appropriate suf-
fixes are combined. Depending on their respective methods of formation, they may be ei-
ther combinations of roots and suffixes, or those of verbal stems and suffixes.
If a part or the whole of a commented unit is a Primary Derivative, its comment unit
would be concerned with its root (if it is formed by adding a suffix to a root), or its verbal stem (if formed by adding a suffix to a verbal stem), the sense of either of them, the suffix or its sense. The terms root and verbal stem here would be labelled with the epithet primary to differentiate them from those of conjugated verbs, and the term suffix also, to make it different from that of the secondary derivative.
a. Primary-Root / Primary-Stem indications (dutiyadhātupadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. laddhoti labhito
The phrase, "labhito" indicates that the Primary Derivative laddho has the
root √√ labh. (Primary-Root indication)
Ex. kurumanoti karonto
The phrase, "karonto" indicates that the part kuru of kurumano is an alterna-
tive form of the stem karo. (Primary-Stem indication)
b. Primary-Root Sense / Primary-Stem Sense indications
(dutiyadhātvatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. buddhoti jānanto1
The phrase, "jānanto" indicates that the root √ budh of the Primary Derivative
buddho means, "to know, to perceive". (Primary-Root Sense indication)
Ex. bujjhantoti jānanto
The phrase, "jānanto" indicates that the stem bujjha of the Primary Derivative
bujjhanto means, "to know, to perceive". (Primary-Stem Sense indication)
c. Primary-Suffix indication (dutiyapaccayapadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. laddhoti labhito
The phrase, "labhito" indicates that the Primary Derivative laddho has the
suffix ta.
d. Primary-Suffix Sense indication (dutiyapaccayatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Ex. buddhoti jānanto
The phrase, "jānanto" indicates that the suffix ta of the Primary Derivative
buddho has the sense of Subjective Suffixal case / Active Voice.
1 The same example for the primary-suffix sense indication
a. Secondary-Stem indication (dutiyaliṅgapadasaṃvaṇṇanā) 1
Ex. Sāmaññanti samaṇatā
The phrase "samaṇatā" indicates that the word "Sāmaññaṃ" is a secondary
derivative derived from the stem "samaṇa".
b. Secondary-Stem Sense indication (dutiyaliṅgatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Lāmakataroti pāpataro.
The phrase pāpataro indicates that the stem lāmaka of the secondary deriva-
tive "lāmakataro" has the sense "bad, evil".
c. Secondary-Suffix indication (paccayapadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Pāpiyoti pāpataro
The phrase pāpataro indicates that the word Pāpiyo is formed by using the
secondary derivative suffix ya.
d. Secondary-Suffix Sense indication (paccayatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Dhanavāti dhanena samannāgato.
The phrase dhanena samannāgato indicates that the Secondary Suffix vant
of the word dhanavā has the Possessive sense.
1 the term " secondary (dutiya) " is used here to differentiate the stems and suffixes from nominal types.
C. 7 Prefix indications
There are twenty prefixes used in Pali. They are termed upasagga in Sanskrit
and in Pali commentarial literature. In Pali grammatical works, however, they are
called upasāra. They are given here with their Sanskrit counterparts also in brackets
wherever they are not identical with the corresponding Pali forms.
Ati, Adhi, Anu, Apa, Api, Abhi, Ava, Ā, U (Ut)2, Upa, O3, Du (Duḥ)4, Ni (Ni
/ Nir)5, Pa (Pra), Pati (Prati), Parā, Pari, Vi, Saṃ, Su.
A prefix may be used, to modify or to reverse the sense of the verb, or the
noun, with which it is combined. Otherwise, it is a mere element that carries no par-
ticular sense.
Ex. √ car - "to go, to move" ati √ car - "to go beyond, to overtake, to invade" (ati as modifier)
√ ji - "to win, to conquer" parā √ ji - "to lose, to be defeated" (parā as
reverser)
√ car - "to practise, to perform" ā√ car - the same (ā as a mere element)
a. Prefix-Defining indication (upasāraliṅgapadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. abhīti upasaggo The phrase upasaggo indicates that abhi is a prefix.
b. Prefix-sense indication (upasāraliṅgatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. āgantvā ramanaṃ ārammanaṃ.
The phrase āgantvā indicates that ā of ārammanaṃ is a prefix having the
sense, " having come".
2 Ut is changed into Ud when followed by vowels or soft consonants.
3 Ava is used instead of O in Sanskrit.
4 Duh is changed into Dur, Dus, Duw, Dus, or Du, owing to Sandhi.
5 Ni and Nir have different senses in Sankrit. But they are represented in Pali by the single form Ni only.
C. 8 Indeclinable indicationsa. Indeclinable-Defining indication (nipātaliṅgapadasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Itīti nipāto.
The phrase nipāto indicates that iti is an indeclinable.
b. Indeclinable-sense indication (nipātaliṅgatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Khalūti anussavanatthe nipāto.
The phrase anussavanatthe indicates that the indeclinable khalu has the
sense, "hearsay, report".
C.9 Literal Sense indication (saddābhidheyyatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
All sense indications given above, such as those of nominal sense, compound con-
tent etc. are termed literal sense indications, for they each suggest the sense derived from
one or other grammatical entity.
Ex. Bhūmiṃ gato bhūmigato.
(Besides being a Compound Content indication), the phrase " Bhūmiṃ gato "
indicates that the word bhūmigatoliterally means " the one who goes to the
ground".
C. 10 Contextual Sense indication (sarupābhidheyyatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Bujjhatīti buddho, bhagavā. The phrase, bhagavā indicates that buddho means here the Lord Buddha, i.e.
not all those who know.
C.11 Synonymic Sense indication (pariyāyābhidheyyatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
Ex. Posoti puriso The phrase puriso indicates that poso is a synonym of puriso meaning,
"man".
C.12 Ordinary Explanation (bhāvatthasaṃvaṇṇanā)
All comment units outside the scope of those above are viewed as ordinary explanations.
Ex. jānātīti sabbaṃ jānāti
The phrase sabbaṃ indicates that the sense of knowing conveyed by jānāti means knowing everything.
When an inactive object not mentioned with a commented primary derivative is in-
serted into its comment unit, the subjective suffixal case is usually indicated.
Ex. labhitoti cīvaraṃ labhito
When an inactive subject not mentioned with a commented primary derivative is
inserted into its comment unit, the objective suffixal case is usually indicated.
Ex. labhitoti bhikkhunā labhito
When a primary derivative is commented using the words such as yutta, anuccha-
vika (suitable, proper), arahati (should be, deserves to be, be worthy of), sakkā (possible,
capable), the objective suffixal case is usually indicated.
Ex. karaṇīyanti karituṃ yuttaṃ
When a primary derivative unit is commented
1.with its abstractive derivative
2. with another primary derivative with the suffix ana or,
3.by compounding it with the stem bhāva, or, ākāra --- the verbal suffixal case is usually indicated.
If the suffixal case of a commented primary derivative is not obvious, yet if it is
commented using the abstract derivative of another having an unmistakable subjective or
objective suffixal case, or by compounding the same with the stem - bhāva, then it indi-
cates that the commented unit has the corresponding suffixal case and that its content must
be taken in the abstract sense.
Ex. gamananti gacchantatā / gacchantattaṃ / gacchantabhāvo
gamanaṃ - the state of the one who goes (the abstract sense of a primary derivative with subjective suffixal case)
Secondary Derivatives as Commented Units
When a secondary derivative is commented ---
a. with a primary derivative which has the verbal suffixal case, especially with those having the suffix anaOR,
b. with its secondary stem compounded with bhāva, or, ākāra,
the abstract derivative type is usually indicated.
Ex. dāyakatāti dānaṃ / dāyakabhāvo / dāyakakāro
If a secondary derivative is commented using words having the sense of similarity
or comparison, such as sarikkhaka, sadisa, sama, viya, iva, etc., the comparative type is
usually indicated.
Ex. sīhoti sīhasadiso / sīhena samo / sīho viya
The Secondary Derivatives of possessive type and the other three of the miscellaneous type --- origination (bhava), birth (jāta), and attachment (niyutta) --- are viewed as
equivalents. Accordingly, an indication of anyone of them implies others.
When a compound is commented using iti, hutvā, bhūta, saṅkhāta, or eva, the ad-
jectival (kammadhāraya) type is usually indicated.
Ex. dhammañānanti dhammo iti ñānaṃ.
When a single noun or a compound is commented by combining it with an inserted
noun or nominal stem, one of the initial elision1, middle elision2, or final elision3 types is
usually indicated.
Ex. dattoti devadatto (indicated as initial elision)
paṇītabhojananti paṇītasaṃsatthaṃ bhojanaṃ (indicated as middle elision)
rupanti rupabhavo (indicated as final elision)
When a compound initiated by a prefix or an indeclinable, is commented by re-
versing the positions of its members, the indeclinable type is usually indicated.
Ex. upanagaranti nagarasamīpaṃ (the stem samīpa represents the sense of the prefix upa)
adhogirīti girino adho
When members of a compound are reversed positionally in its comment unit, it is
indicated as either one of the irregulardeterminative (tappurisa) type, or of the relative
(bahubbīhi) type, or of the adjectival (kammadhāraya) type with a modifier as the last
member, or of the second negative type .
Ex. aggasamaṇoti samaṇānaṃ aggo (indicated as the irregular determinative type)
saputtoti puttasahito (indicated as the relative type)
purisavisesoti viseso puriso (indicated as the adjectival type)
acīvaroti cīvaravirahito (indicated as the second negative type)
When two members of a compound are given in its comment unit as separate words
with the same case, the adjectival (kammadhāraya) type is usually indicated. If one or
more ca indeclinables are inserted IN ADDITION, the mutual (dvanda) type is usually in-
dicated. OR, if both members are numerals and one or more vā indeclinables are inserted,
the relative (bahubbīhi) type is usually indicated.
Ex. mahāpurisoti mahanto puriso (indicated as the adjectival type)
samaṇabrahmanāti samaṇā ca brahmaṇā ca (indicated as the mutual type)
dvttipattāti dve vā tayo vā pattā (indicated as the relative type)
6 When two members of a compound are given in its comment unit as separate words
with different cases, the determinative (tappurisa) type is usually indicated.
Ex. gāmagatoti gāmaṃ gato (indicated as the determinative type)
When one of four pronouns ya, ta, eta, ima is inserted in the comment unit of a
compound, the relative type is usually indicated.
Ex. chinnahatthenāti chinno hattho yassāti chinnahattho, tena (indicated as the relative type)
1 ādilopa 2 majjhelopa 3 antalopa
Relations as Commented Units
When a noun is commented using the gerunds derived from the roots √ kar √ bhu or √
hu, an Adverbial relation is indicated.
Ex. Puriso hasamāno gacchati. (commented unit)
hasamāno ti hasanto hutvā (bhavitvā) / hasanaṃ katvā (comment unit)
When a noun in Instrumental case is commented by changing its case into the Ac-
cusative and combining it with a gerund, a special adjectival relation called characteristic
adjective1 is indicated.
Ex. daṇḍena puriso agacchati. (commented unit)
daṇḍenāti daṇḍaṃ gahetvā (comment unit)
When a noun in Locative case is commented using the word antare, the collection-
individual relation is indicated.
Ex. sattesu buddho uttamo. (commented unit) sattesūti sattānaṃ antare (comment unit)
Miscellaneous
When a comment unit has words having the possessive sense --- samannāgata,
sampuṇṇa, paripuṇṇa, sampanna, etc. --- it usually indicates the commented unit as being
a Primary Derivative of subjective suffixal case, a Relative Compound, or a Secondary De-
rivative of possessive type.
Ex. (Primary Derivative of subjective suffixal case) dāyakoti dānena samannāgato.
(Relative Compound) mahādhanoti mahantena dhanena sampuṇṇo.
(Possessive Derivative) dhanavatoti dhanena sampannassa.
2. Three grammatical entities given above --- the Primary Derivative of subjective suf-
fixal case, the Relative Compound, the Secondary Derivative of possessive type--- are
viewed as essentially equivalent. Accordingly, anyone of them may be used to indicate
others.
a. Commented unit indicated as a Primary Derivative of subjective suffixal case
Ex. dāyakoti dinnacīvaro (puriso) [comment unit as relative compound]
dāyakoti dānavanto [comment unit as possessive derivative]
b. Commented unit indicated as a Relative Compound
Ex. mahādhanoti dhanavanto [comment unit as possessive derivative]
laddhadhanoti dhanaṃ labhanto [comment unit as primary derivative of subjective suffixal case]
c. Commented unit indicated as a Possessive Derivative
Ex. dhanavāti bahudhano [comment unit as relative compound]
gatimantoti gacchanto [comment unit as primary derivative of subjective suffixal case]
When a verbal stem, either of a conjugated verb or of a primary derivative, is com-
mented using a noun combined with a verbal form derived from the root √ kar, it is meant
to be a suggestion of a denominative verb or derivative.
Ex. saddāyatīti saddaṃ karoti. saddāyantoti saddaṃ karonto.
Sometimes, the sense of a verbal stem or of a root is commented using verbal
forms derived from the roots √ hū, √ bhū, or √ kar.
Ex. sucantoti sucati parisuddho bhavati. hatoti hanati maranaṃ karoti.
---Compiled and commented by Ven.PaṇḍitaPariyatti FacultyITBMU.
--- Revised edition at PA-AUK Tawya, Mawlamyine.
Reference:
ဓမ္မmစရိယမျက်ရှု --- အရှင်ကာရုဏိက
သံဝဏ္ဏနာစစ် --- ခင်ကြီးပျော
Analysis of Explanatory Words (translation of သံဝဏ္ဏနာစစ်)
----by Ashin Nandamālābhivaṃsa
通常定义两种关系来分析给定的巴利语文本，即词对词关系和句对句关系。
>There are two kinds of relations usually defined to analyze given Pali text, namely, word-to-word relations and sentence-to-sentence ones.
译者注：该关系连词通常是出现在一个句子的第二个位置上
前者用于获取句子的句法意义，已在“基础/高级关系语法(Basic / Advanced Relational Grammar)”中讨论过。
>The former is used to get the syntactic sense of a sentence and has been discussed in Basic / Advanced Relational Grammar.
后者用于准确描述一段、一章甚至一卷句子之间的逻辑关系。
>The latter is used to get the accurate picture of logical relations among sentences of a paragraph, a chapter or even a volume.
本主题是对“句对句”关系的介绍。
>This topic is an introduction to sentence-to-sentence relations.
巴利语术语“vākya”字面意思是“一个句子”，即独立的一组单词集合，其中可以在不超出该集合的情况下，正确地定义句法上的单词对单词的关系。
>The Pali term vākya literally means "a sentence", i.e., a self-contained set of words, in which syntactic word-to-word relations can be properly defined without going out of the set.
然而，它在这里指的是内容或主题的独立单元，因此使用主题单元这个术语。
>However, it means here an independent unit of content or subject matter, hence the term thematic unit.
最小的主题单元是一个句子，它们中的每一个都可以组合成更大的主题单元，它们的范围从两个或两个以上的句子到整段或一章，或者甚至整卷不等。
>The smallest thematic unit is a sentence and each of them may combine to form larger ones --- with their extents ranging from two or more sentences up to a whole paragraph or chapter, or even a whole volume.
许多主题单元用一些不变词来标记，即hi、ca或pana。
>Many thematic units are marked by certain indeclinables, namely, hi, ca, or pana.
它们通常紧跟其所在句子的第一个单词的后面。
>They are usually placed immediately after the initial words of their respective sentences.
从理论上讲，它们与英语连词相似， 据说它们能指明主题单元之间的句法关系。
>In theory, they are similar to English conjunctions --- they are said to illuminate the thematic relations among thematic units.
然而，在实践中，它们中的每一个都被用来表示几乎所有可能的关系；（如此灵活的）超负荷使用，(使得主题标记)本身无法成为(分析句法关系的)凭据。
>In practice, however, each of them is used to indicate almost all relations possible; it is almost impossible to rely on them when they are so overloaded.
(这也导致)在实践中(与理论上)恰恰相反，
>The actual process is rather the reverse.
主题标记只是一个信号，表明有必要分析其主单元与前一个单元的句法关系。
>A thematic marker is only a signal that indicates the necessity to analyze the thematic relation of its HOST unit to the PREVIOUS one.
在完成分析并找出关系后，利用这种关系对标记本身进行合理的翻译。
>After the analysis has been finished and the relation found out, that relation is used to make a reasonable translation of the marker itself.
The term essential content is used in contrast with the literal content.
For example, a simple sentence counting the Triple Gems as Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha is literally different from a whole chapter explaining them in detail one by one; but they are essentially the same in content. Why? Because the subject matter is the same, i.e., the Triple Gems.
The essential content of a thematic unit is related to that of its previous or following one in one of following three ways:
The type of a given thematic unit is defined in reference to its preceding and following ones. For instance, if a unit is an elaboration of the previous one but serves as one of partial content to the following one, it is termed as the unit of both elaboration and partial content. Accordingly, types of thematic units are usually given in pairs; in each pair, each member has its type defined in reference to another.
Depending on the relation of their essential contents, they are divided into three classes.
B. Sarnath (T.M) is a small village near Benares, a town in the Northeastern part of India. It was known as Migadāya at the time of the Buddha. It was there that the Buddha preached Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta, etc., etc.
(T.M) = " to elaborate OR to give details"
The following unit B is a Unit of Elaboration with reference to A, for it is an elaboration of the word Sarnath mentioned in A.
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Summarized Content with reference to B.
A. The whole family is busy.
B. Father (T.M) is mowing the lawn. Mother is preparing the dinner. The son is sweeping the floor. The daughter is cleaning the cupboard.
(T.M) = the same as above
The following unit B is a Unit of Elaboration with reference to A, for it is an elaboration of the working of the family mentioned in A.
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Summarized Content with reference to B.
B. Just (T.M) as birds come to a tree full of fruits for a good meal, they moved to town hoping for an easy and happy life.
就(T. M)像鸟儿为了享用美味而来到一棵挂满果实的树一样，他们向往着轻松快乐的生活而搬到城里。
(T.M) = " to explain OR to make lucid"
(T. M)=“解释或使清楚”
The following unit B is a Unit of Illuminated Content with reference to A, for it is an explanation of how that couple moved to town.
以下单元B是参照A的照明内容单元，因为它解释了这对夫妇是如何搬到镇上的
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Vague Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为参照B的模糊内容单元。
Note: a simply exhaustive account is termed a Unit of Elaborated Content whereas the one given using similes or reasoning is called a Unit of Illuminated Content.
注：简单详尽的叙述称为详述内容的单元，而使用明喻或推理的叙述称为阐明内容的单元。
A. He would have passed the examination if he really wished to do so.
如果他真的想通过考试，他早就通过了
B. The (T.M) saying goes, " When there’s a will, there’s a way."
B. (T. M)谚语是这样说的：“有志者事竟成.”
(T.M) = " it is true"
(T. M)=“这是真的”
The following unit B is a Unit of Confirming Content with reference to A, for it quotes a popular proverb to confirm the prospect of passing the examination.
下面的单元B是参照A确认内容的单元，因为它引用了一句流行的谚语来确认通过考试的前景。
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Doubtful Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B的待定内容单元
A. He really wishes to pass the examination.
他真的很想通过考试。
B. Even (T.M) in his sleep, he is dreaming of his lessons.
即使(T. M)在睡梦中，他也在梦见他的功课。
(The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above)
(关系连词译文同上)
The following unit B is a Unit of Confirming Content with reference to A, for it gives the circumstantial evidence to confirm that he really "wills" to pass the examination.
下面的单元B是关于A的内容确认单元，因为它给出了环境证据，以确认他确实“愿意”通过考试。
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Doubtful Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B的可疑内容单元。
This pair is similar to that of Unit of Elaborated Contentfollowed byUnit of Summarized Content(# "vitthāravākya - saṅkhepavākya") but the concluding part of a topic or chapter or even a whole book is termed Unit of Concluding Content while the rest of the topic, etc. is labeled Unit of Main Content.
(T.M) = " Therefore it is known that"
(T. M)=“因此，我们知道”
The following unit B is a Unit of Conclusion with reference to A, for it is the conclusion of the premise given in A, i.e., "smoke being seen" .
下面的单元B是关于A的结论单元，因为它是A中给出的条件的结论，即“看到烟”。
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Premise with reference to B.
因此，关于B，A称为前提单元
A. A fire started to burn in the forest.
森林里开始着火了
B. Billows (T.M) of smoke rose into the sky.
滚滚浓烟(T. M)升入天空
(T.M) = " Therefore"
(T. M)=“因此”
The following unit B is a Unit of Effect with reference to A, for it is the effect of the cause given in A, i.e., " a fire burning in the forest".
下面的单元B是关于A的效果单元，因为它是A中给出的原因的效果，即“森林中燃烧的一场火”.
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Cause with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B的原因单元
The following unit B is a Unit of Premise with reference to A, for it is the premise of the conclusion given in A, i.e., "Fire being on the mountain" .
下面的单元B是关于A的前提单元，因为它是A中所给出的结论的前提，即“火在山上”
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Conclusion with reference to B.
因此，A称为关于B的结论单元。
A. They said that only one-third of the committee turned up for the meeting.
A. 他们说只有三分之一的委员出席了会议。
B. It (T.M) would be a reflection of the fact that the majority of committee members were against the new leader.
B. 它(T. M)或许是大多数委员会成员反对新领导人的这一事实的(实际)反应。
(T.M) = " It would imply that OR Thus"
(T. M)=“那或许暗示OR因此”
The following unit B is a Unit of Convincing Implication with reference to A, for it gives the sense which is implied provided the fact given in A is confirmed, i.e., "If the majority of committee members were absent at the meeting" .
(Note that B is an indirect verification of A)
(请注意，B是对A的间接证明)
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Confirmable Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为参照B的可确认内容的单元。
Note on different opinions:
注意这里有不同观点：
A given unit is labeled a Unit of Convincing Implication if:
给定的单元被标记为具有令人信服的含义的单元，条件是：
a. It is an effect (conclusion) of another unit, which is itself the effect (conclusion) of still another OR
a. 它是另一个单元的效果(结论)，(另一个单元)本身还是另一个OR的效果(结论)
b. It is a unit of effect (conclusion) that precedes its unit of cause (premise) —— it implies that a unit of effect (conclusion) is termed so only if it follows its respective unit of cause (premise).
b. 它是效果(结论)单元并位于其原因(前提)的单元之前——这是在暗示，只有当这个单元跟随其本身的原因(前提)时，它才被称为结果(结论)
A. The subject is said to be too boring for students.
A. 据说这门课对学生来说太枯燥了.
B. If (T.M) it were really so, no one would attend the lecture. But the lecture-hall is full every day.
B. 如果(T. M)真是这样，就没有人会去听讲座了。但是讲堂每天都座无虚席。
(T.M) = " The blame here is"
(T. M)=“这里的矛盾是”
The following unit B is a Unit of Destructive Implication with reference to A, for it gives the improbable content implied provided the fact given in A is confirmed, i.e.,
"If the subject is a bore" .
下面的单元B是关于A的破绽，因为它给出了不太可能的结论推导是在A中所给出的事实得到确认，即，“如果这个门课程无聊”的这一前提下。
(Note that B is an indirect negation of A)
(请注意，B是A的间接否定)
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Disputable Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为参照B的不合理单元
OR .
A. The subject is not boring.
A. 这们课并不枯燥。
B. Otherwise, (T.M) there would be no one in the class.
B. 否则，(T. M)班上就没有人了
(The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above)
(关系连词译文同上)
The following unit B is a Unit of Destructive Implication with reference to A, for it
gives the improbable content implied if the fact given in A is refuted, i.e., "If the
subject is boring" .
后面的单元B是关于A的续补单元，因为它是A中给出的内容的补充，即通过澄清她是否是学生。
>The following unit B is a Unit of Continued Supplement with reference to A, for it is a supplement of the content given in A, i.e., by clearing the doubt whether she is a student.
因此，参照B，将A称为部分内容单元。
>Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Partial Content with reference to B.
A. She goes to school everyday. She is a teacher at a school nearby. She has taught there for more than two years, etc. etc.
她每天都去学校。她是附近一所学校的老师。她在那里教书两年多了，等等。
B. On (T.M) her way to school, she always meets a strange woman.
在她上学的路上，她总是遇到一个陌生的女人
(T.M) = " to continue, to resume"
(T. M)=“继续，恢复”
下面的单元B是关于A的呼应补充的单元，因为它对A中有一段距离的单元组分中给出的某些内容进行呼应。即“她每天都去上学”。
>The following unit B is a Unit of Resumed Supplement with reference to A, for it resumes on certain content given in a distant member unit of A, i.e., "that she goes to school everyday".
因此，参照B，将A称为开头内容单元。
>Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Partial Content with reference to B.
A. The word house means " a building for living in, a building in general, a dwelling - place, an inn, a public house, a household, a family in line of descent, kindred, a trading establishment, etc.".
下面的单元B是关于A的特定内容的单元，因为它根据上下文的实际需要给出了A中的可能的含义中的的特定意义，即“酒店”的名称。
>The following unit B is a Unit of Particular Content with reference to A, for it gives the particular sense, which is contextually required, out of the possible ones given in A, i.e., that of "a public house".
因此，A被称为关于B的一般内容单元。
>Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of General Content with reference to B.
A. The word house means " a building for living in, a building in general, a dwelling - place, an inn, a public house, a household, a family in line of descent, kindred, a trading establishment, etc.".
下面的单元B是关于A的特定内容的单元，因为它根据上下文的实际需要给出了A中的可能的含义中的的特定意义，即“酒店”的名称。
>The following unit B is a Unit of Particular Content with reference to A, for it gives the particular sense, which is contextually required, out of the possible ones given in A, i.e., that of "a public house".
因此，A被称为关于B的一般内容单元。
>Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of General Content with reference to B.
The following unit B is a Unit of Negative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content contrary to that given in A, i.e., "those going to school".
下面的单元B是关于A的否定内容单元，因为它给出的内容与A中给出的内容相反，即“上学的人”
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B的肯定内容单元
A. The sentence " she did not go," means that she did not go abroad.
【尽管】“她没有去”这句话的意思是她没有出国
B. She (T.M) did go to school and other places nearby.
【不过】她(T. M)确实去了学校和附近的其他地方
(The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above)
(关系连词译文同上)
The following unit B is a Unit of Negative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content contrary to that given in the commented part of A, i.e., "her lack of movement".
下面的单元B是关于A的否定内容单元，因为它给出的内容与A中给出的注释部分的相反，即“她缺乏动作”
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B的肯定内容单元
The following unit B is a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content contrary to the negation given in A, i.e., "those not going to school".
下面的单元B是关于A的肯定内容单元，因为它给出的内容与A中给出的否定刚好相反，即“那些不上学的人”
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Negative Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B的否定内容单元
A. The sentence " she did not go" does not mean she was at home.
【虽然】“她没有去”这句话并不意味着她在家
B. She (T.M) did not go abroad, anyhow.
【但】(T. M)反正她没有出国
The following unit B is a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content consistent with that of the commented unit given in A, i.e., " she did not go ".
下面的单元B是关于A的肯定内容单元，因为它给出的内容与A中给出的注释单元的内容一致，即“她没有去”
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Negative Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B的否定内容单元
Note注：
In ordinary prose, the unit having the indeclinable Na is the Unit of Negative Content and the other, the Unit of Affirmative Content.
在普通文章中，具有不变化的Na的单元是否定内容单元，另一个单元是肯定内容单元
In a comment unit, however, a unit having content contrary to that of the commented unit is the Unit of Negative Content and the other, the Unit of Affirmative Content.
(The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above)
(关系连词译文同上)
The following unit B is a Unit of Disapproved Content with reference to A, for it is disapproval in contrast with the commendation given in A.
以下单元B是关于A的贬抑内容单元，因为它是贬低，而不是A中给出的褒扬
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Commended Content with reference to B.
因此，A称为关于B的推荐内容单元。
The following unit B is a Unit of Commended Content with reference to A, for it is a commendation in contrast with the disapproval given in A.
以下单元B是关于A的褒扬内容单元，与A中给出的贬抑相比，它是褒扬
Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Disapproved Content with reference to B.
因此，A被称为关于B贬抑内容的单元
B. John is a student at Harvard. He is studying science, etc, etc.
乔恩是哈佛大学的一名学生。他学的是理科，等等，等等。
C. Bob (T.M) is a soldier. He is fighting in Iraq, etc, etc.
鲍勃(T. M)是一名士兵。他在伊拉克作战，等等，等等。
(T.M) = " the next topic is"
(T. M)=“然后”
The following unit C is a Unit of Next Theme with reference to B, for it carries a different theme in contrast with that given in B.
下面的单元C是关于B的下一个主题（启后）的单元，因为它带有与B中给定的不同的主题。
Accordingly, B is termed a Unit of Previous Theme with reference to A.
因此，B被称为关于A的前一个（承前）主题的单元。
